Literature: An Introduction
Outline
of Main Issues
-
What is literature?
-
Medium: language
-
Content: ideas
-
Purpose: entertainment and persuasion
-
- Literature as
a rhetoric engaging the human senses,
desires, and emotions and conveying ideologies
and ideological messages
- Symbolism,
indirectness, figurality of literary
representation
- Layers of meaning: literal and symbolic
- Ideological
meaning generally beyond the literal
- Literary creation:
conscious and unconscious
- Dreams and stories
- Authors' awareness
and unawareness of ideas in literature
- Sources of literature
- Direct: author's ideas, personal experiences, feelings, desires
- Indirect: ideologies; culture and society; historical circumstances; patronage; human aims, aspirations, and desires
- Overdetermination:
multiple causes and sources
- Complexity of authors, cultures, and historical situations
- Representation of multiple ideologies in literary texts
- Possibility
of contradictory ideas within a single text
- The readers and
audiences of literature
- Encounter of readers, texts, and authors
- Ideologies and historical circumstances of readers, audiences
- Influence of
readers on the understanding of literature
- Interpretation:
the art of explaining the meaning of literature, recovering the ideas
embodied in the symbols of literature
- Possibility of multiple meanings due to overdetermination
- Need for close, attentive reading of the text
- Need to understand author's life, historical context
- Need for awareness of readers' and interpreters' biases and ideological preferences
- Objective v.s. subjective interpretation
- Variable value of different interpretations
Literature
Literature (from Latin litterae
(plural); letter) is
the art of written
work and can, in some circumstances, refer exclusively to published
sources. The word literature literally means "things made from
letters" and the pars pro toto
term "letters" is sometimes used letters" and "man of letters." Literature is
commonly classified as having two major forms—fiction & non-fiction—and two
major techniques—poetry and prose.
Literature may consist of texts
based on factual information (journalistic or non-fiction), as well as on
original imagination, such as polemical works as well
as autobiography, and reflective essays as
well as belles-lettres.
Literature can be classified according to historical periods, genres, and
political influences. The concept of genre,
which earlier was limited, has broadened over the centuries. A genre consists
of artistic works which fall within a certain central theme, and examples of
genre include romance, mystery, crime, fantasy, erotica, and adventure, among others. Important
historical periods in English literature
include Old English, Middle English, the Renaissance, the 17th Century Shakespearean and Elizabethan times, the 18th Century Restoration,
19th Century Victorian, and
20th Century Modernism. Important intellectual movements
that have influenced the study of literature include feminism, post-colonialism, psychoanalysis, post-structuralism,
post-modernism, romanticism, and Marxism.
History
Main article: History of
literature
Old book bindings at the Merton College,
Oxford library
The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the
earliest known literary works. This Babylonian epic poem arises from stories in
the Sumerian language.
Although the Sumerian stories are older (probably dating to at least 2100 B.C.), it was probably composed around
1900 BC. The epic deals with themes of heroism, friendship, loss, and the quest
for eternal life.
Different historical periods are
reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of
the world and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual
messages predominate in the preurban eras. The epics of Homer,
dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the
great Indian epics
of a slightly later period, have more evidence of deliberate literary
authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long
periods before being written down.
As a more urban culture developed,
academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical
literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in
Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and Ancient Greece and
Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a
covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Drama
and satire also developed as urban culture
provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary
production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry)
was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in
East Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the
most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs.
Over a long period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song
interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the literary medium.
In ancient China, early literature
was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing,
produced one of the world's first print cultures.[1] Much of Chinese literature
originates with the Hundred
Schools of Thought period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269 BCE). The
most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism,
as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records
of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy
emphasis on historiography, with often very detailed court records. An
exemplary piece of narrative history
of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan,
which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th
century BCE historian Zuo Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature
originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres
included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry.
Sanskrit literature
begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and
continues with the Sanskrit Epics
of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.
The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the
"circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c.
1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid
1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age
and the Iron Age.[2] The period between approximately
the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two most
influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction
progressing down to the 4th century AD.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer,
who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and
most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included
philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas.
Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts that
are the foundation of Western philosophy,
Sappho and Pindar were influential lyrical poets, and Herodotus and Thucydides were early Greek historians.
Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of
plays by three authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples
of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy,
the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[3]
Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and
author of the Faust books
Roman histories and biographies
anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and
miraculous chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance,
an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with strong popular appeal.
Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated
during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the
mediaeval romance developed into a more character-based and psychological form
of narrative, the novel, of which early and important
examples are the Chinese Monkey
and the German Faust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and
speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with social and
political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion of Romanticism in the later 18th century which
reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and
folk-literature and asserted the primacy of individual experience and emotion.
But as the 19th-century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and naturalism,
the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output
of naturalism was implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political
change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back towards the subjective,
emphasising unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on
the individual. Writers such as Proust, Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of
documenting internal rather than external realities.
Genre fiction also showed it could question
reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through the
enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of
"mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism)
continued to blur during the period up to our own times. William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson
expanded documentary reporting into strong subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the
idea of objective realism in general.
Poetry
A poem
is a composition
written in verse
(although verse has also been used for epic and dramatic fiction). Poems make
use of the aesthetic qualities of language to suggest differential meanings and
to evoke emotive responses. Poems rely heavily on imagery
and metaphor; they may have a rhythmic structure
based on patterns of stresses (metric feet) or on patterns of
different-length syllables (as in classical prosody);
and they may or may not utilize rhyme. Due to the
diversity of poetic forms and structures, poetry can be difficult to define and
characterize. Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes use of the
formal properties of the words it uses – the properties of the written or spoken
form of the words, independent of their meaning. For example, rhythm can be
established by the number of syllables in the words or how these syllables are
stressed; rhyme and alliteration
depend on the sounds of the words.
Arguably, poetry pre-dates other
forms of literature. Early examples include the Sumerian
Epic of Gilgamesh
(dated from around 2700 B.C.),
parts of the Bible, the surviving works of Homer
(the Iliad and the Odyssey), and the Indian epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata. In cultures based
primarily on oral traditions
the formal characteristics of poetry often have a mnemonic function, and important texts:
legal, genealogical or moral, for example, may
appear first in verse form.
Some poetry uses specific forms.
Examples include the haiku, the limerick,
and the sonnet. A traditional haiku written in
Japanese relate to nature, contain seventeen onji (syllables),
distributed over three lines in groups of five, seven, and five, and should
also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season. A limerick has five
lines, with a rhyme scheme of
AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a
less reverent attitude towards nature. Poetry not adhering to a formal poetic
structure is called "free verse".
Language and tradition dictate some
poetic norms: Persian poetry always rhymes whilst Greek poetry rarely does.
Some languages contain more rhyming words than others. Italian, for example,
has a rich rhyming structure permitting use of a limited set of rhymes
throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow
regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other
languages, is less rich in rhyme. Perhaps the most paradigmatic style of English poetry, blank
verse, as exemplified in works by Shakespeare
and Milton, consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters. Some languages prefer
longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease
of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into certain
structures, rather than into others; For example, this may occur when a
language typically has longer words than other languages, such us Greek and German. Other structural conventions come
about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a language
associate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or
popular poet.
Works for theatre (see below)
traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside opera
and musicals,
although many would argue that the language of drama remains intrinsically
poetic.
In recent years, digital poetry has arisen that takes
advantage of the artistic, publishing, and synthetic qualities of digital
media.
Essays
An essay
consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view,
exemplified by works by Michel de Montaigne
or by Charles Lamb.
"Essay" in English derives
from the French word for "to attempt," essayer.[citation
needed] Thus, one can find open-ended, provocative, and
inconclusive essays. The term "essays" first applied to the
self-reflective musings of Michel de Montaigne,
who has a reputation as the father of this literary form.[citation
needed]
Genres related to the essay may
include:
- the memoir, saying the story of an author's life from the author's personal point of view
- the epistle: usually a formal, didactic, or elegant letter.
- works by Lady Murasaki[citation needed], the Arabic Hayy ibn Yaqdhan by Ibn Tufail, the Arabic Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis, and the Chinese Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong[citation needed].
Early novels in Europe did not count
as significant litera perhaps because "mere" prose writing seemed
easy and unimportant.[citation
needed] It has become clear, however, that prose writing
can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to poetic forms. Additionally,
the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse
structure translates often into a more complex plot or into
one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry.
This freedom also allows an author to experiment with many different literary
and presentation styles—including poetry—in the scope of a single novel.
Other
prose literature
Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally
ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in
existence; novels and prose stories earned the names "fiction" to distinguish them from
factual writing or nonfiction, which
writers historically have crafted in prose.
Natural
science
As advances and specialization have
made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the
"literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over
the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in journals.
Scientific works of Aristotle, Copernicus,
and Newton still possess great value, but since
the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for
scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sit well in most
programmes of literary study. Outside of "history of science"
programmes, students rarely read such works.
Philosophy
Philosophy, too, has become an
increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this
situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical
work appears in academic journals.
Major philosophers through history—Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Augustine,
Descartes, Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche—have
become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to
merit the title "literature", such as some of the works by Simon Blackburn; but much of it does not,
and some areas, such as logic, have become
extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics.
History
A great deal of historical writing
ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonfiction.
So can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism.
However these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily
utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a
result the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it
often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary"
historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical
literary figures.
Law
Law
offers a less clear case. Some writings of Plato
and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, or even the early parts of the Bible
could be seen as legal literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris
Civilis during the reign of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire has a reputation as
significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature;
however, most legal writings rarely exhibit much literary merit, as they tend
to be rather garrulous.
Drama
A magic carpet, was a legendary carpet that
can be used to transport persons who are on it instantaneously or quickly to
their destination in the stories of the One Thousand
and One Nights.
A play or drama
offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the
years. It generally comprises chiefly dialogue between characters,
and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical performance (see theatre) rather than at reading. During the
18th and 19th centuries, opera developed as a
combination of poetry, drama, and music. Nearly all drama
took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered
drama. Romeo and Juliet,
for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as literature.
Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of
drama of which we have substantial knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic genre,
developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing
upon well-known historical or mythological themes. Tragedies generally
presented very serious themes.
With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have
been added to this form. War of the
Worlds (radio) in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for
radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or
television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been
adapted to printed or electronic media.
Oral
literature
The term oral literature refers not to written, but
to oral traditions, which includes different types of epic, poetry and drama,
folktales, ballads. However the use of this oxymoron is controversial and not generally
accepted by the scientific community. Some prefer to avoid the etymological question using "oral narrative tradition", "oral
sacred tradition", "oral poetry" or directly using epics or
poetry (terms that do not necessarily imply writing), others prefer to create
neologisms as orature.
Other
narrative forms
- Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works which originate in digital environments.
- Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of prose fiction.
- Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text.
Genres
of literature
Literary genre is a mode of categorising
literature. The term originates from French, designating a proposed type or
class.[4] However, such classes are subject
to change, and have been used in different ways in different periods and
traditions.
Literary
techniques
Main article: Literary technique
A literary technique or literary
device can be used by authors in order to enhance the written framework of
a piece of literature, and produce specific effects. Literary techniques
encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting a work: whether a work is
narrated in first-person
or from another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear narrative or a
nonlinear narrative,
or the choice of literary genre,
are all examples of literary technique. They may indicate to a reader that
there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a
conventional murder-mystery novel;
or, the author may choose to experiment with their technique to surprise the
reader.
In this way, use of a technique can
lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first
modern novels, Pamela
by Samuel Richardson.
Pamela is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence,
called "epistolary technique"; by using this technique, Pamela
strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel, a genre which had been
practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.
Literary technique is distinguished
from literary device,
as military tactics
are distinguished from military strategy.
Devices are specific constructions within the narrative that make it effective.
Examples include metaphor, simile, ellipsis, narrative motifs, and
allegory. Even simple word play functions as a literary device.
The narrative mode
may be considered a literary device, such as the use of stream-of-consciousness
narrative.
Literary criticism implies a
critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and, in some cases, it is used
to improve a work in progress or a classical piece, as with an ongoing theatre
production. Literary editors can serve a similar purpose for the authors with
whom they work. There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used
to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a
piece.
Legal status
UK
A Young Girl
Reading, c. 1776, by Jean-Honoré
Fragonard, National Gallery
of Art, Washington, DC.
Literary works have been protected
by copyright law from unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.[5] Literary works are defined by
copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which
is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation
(other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material
for a computer program, and (d) a database.
It should be noted that literary
works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed
in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[6]
